IPY History: Leonardo

On three occasions over the past 125 years scientists from around the world banded together to organize concentrated scientific and exploring programs in the Polar Regions. In each major thrust, or “year,” scientific knowledge and geographical exploration were advanced, thereby extending understanding of many geophysical phenomena that influence nature’s global systems. Each polar year was a hallmark of international cooperation in science. The experience gained by scientists and governments in international cooperation set the stage for other international scientific collaboration. International scientific cooperation also paved the way for several political accords that gained their momentum from the polar years. IPY 2007-2008 will expand upon this legacy of scientific achievement and societal benefits.
First International Polar Year (1882-1883): The idea of International Polar Years was the inspiration of the Austrian explorer and naval officer Lt. Karl Weyprecht who was a scientist and co-commander of the Austro-Hungarian Polar Expedition of 1872-74.
From his experiences in the Polar Regions Weyprecht became aware that solutions to the fundamental problems of meteorology and geophysics were most likely to be found near the Earth’s poles. The key concept of the first IPY was that geophysical phenomena could not be surveyed by one nation alone; rather, an undertaking of this magnitude would require a coordinated international effort. 12 countries participated, and 15 expeditions to the poles were completed (13 to the Arctic, and 2 to the Antarctic). Beyond the advances to science and geographical exploration, a principal legacy of the First IPY was setting a precedent for international science cooperation. Unfortunately Weyprecht did not live to see his idea come to fruition.
Sites
Austria - Jan Mayen IslandAmerica 1 - Point Barrow, Alaska ( 71deg N )America 2 - Lady-Franklin-Bay at Discovery Harbor, Ellesmere Isl. ( 81deg 42'N) Denmark - Godthab, Western GreenlandEngland ( Canada ) - Fort Rae at the Great Slave LakeFrance - Orangebay at the southern tip of Tierra del Fuego (S. Hemisphere)Finland - Sodankyla & Kultala (at Ivalojoki River)Germany 1 - Kingua-Fjord at Cumberland Sound, Baffin IslandGermany 2 - Moltke-Hafen at Royal Bay, South Georgia (S Hemisphere)Holland - Dicksonhafen - the expedition vessel "Varna" sunk so the expedition made its observations in the Kara Sea near Waigach IslandNorway - Bossekop / Alten, AltenfjordRussia 1 - Karmakuly, Moller Bay, Nowaja SemljaRussia 2 - Sagasta at the Lena estuarySweden - Cap Thordsen in the Icefjord, Spitzbergen
Beyond the advances to science and geographical exploration, a principal legacy of the First IPY was setting a precedent for international science cooperation.

Second International Polar Year (1932-1933): The International Meteorological Organization proposed and promoted the Second IPY (1932–1933) as an effort to investigate the global implications of the newly discovered “Jet Stream.” 40 nations participated in the Second IPY, and it heralded advances in meteorology, magnetism, atmospheric science, and in the “mapping” of ionospheric phenomena that advanced radio science and technology. Forty permanent observation stations were established in the Arctic, creating a step-function expansion in ongoing scientific Arctic research. In Antarctica, the U.S. contribution was the second Byrd Antarctic expedition, which established a winter-long meteorological station approximately 125 miles south of Little America Station on the Ross Ice Shelf at the southern end of Roosevelt Island. This was the first research station inland from Antarctica’s coast.
The International Geophysical Year (1957-58): The International Geophysical Year (IGY), 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958, celebrated the 75th and 25th anniversaries of the First and Second IPYs. The IGY was conceived by a number of post-WWII eminent physicists, including Sydney Chapman, James Van Allen, and Lloyd Berkner, at an informal gathering in Washington, DC in 1950. These individuals realized the potential of the technology developed during WWII (for example, rockets and radar), and they hoped to redirect the technology and scientific momentum towards advances in research, particularly in the upper atmosphere. The IGY’s research, discoveries, and vast array of synoptic observations revised or “rewrote” many notions about the Earth’s geophysics. One long disputed theory, continental drift, was confirmed. A U.S. satellite discovered the Van Allen Radiation Belt encircling the Earth. Geophysical traverses over the Antarctic icecap yielded the first informed estimates of the total size of Antarctica’s ice mass. For many disciplines, the IGY led to an increased level of research that continues to the present. The world’s first satellites were launched. A notable political result founded on the IGY was ratification of the Antarctic Treaty in 1961. The success of the IGY also fostered an additional year of research through the International Geophysical Cooperation. The Special Committee for the IGY became the model on which three post-IGY Scientific Committees developed, for Antarctic, Oceanic, and Space Research, and several focused research efforts including the International Year of the Quiet Sun. The scientific, institutional, and political legacies of the IGY endured for decades, many to the present day.


The Antarctic Treaty
The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve nations that had been active during the IGY (Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States and USSR). The Treaty, which applies to the area south of 60° South latitude, is surprisingly short, but remarkably effective. Through this agreement, the countries active in Antarctica consult on the uses of a whole continent, with a commitment that it should not become the scene or object of international discord. In its fourteen articles the Treaty:
stipulates that Antarctica should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes, military activities, such as the establishment of military bases or weapons testing, are specifically prohibited;
guarantees continued freedom to conduct scientific research, as enjoyed during the IGY;
promotes international scientific cooperation including the exchange of research plans and personnel, and requires that results of research be made freely available;
sets aside the potential for sovereignty disputes between Treaty parties by providing that no activities will enhance or diminish previously asserted positions with respect to territorial claims, provides that no new or enlarged claims can be made, and makes rules relating to jurisdiction;
prohibits nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste;
provides for inspection by observers, designated by any party, of ships, stations and equipment in Antarctica to ensure the observance of, and compliance with, the Treaty;
requires parties to give advance notice of their expeditions;
provides for the parties to meet periodically to discuss measures to further the objectives of the Treaty; and
puts in place a dispute settlement procedure and a mechanism by which the Treaty can be modified.
The Treaty also provides that any member of the United Nations can accede to it. The Treaty now has 44 signatories, 27 are Consultative Parties on the basis of being original signatories or by conducting substantial research there. Membership continues to grow. A full list of the current parties to the Treaty appears at the end of this document.
Since entering into force on 23 June 1961, the Treaty has been recognized as one of the most successful international agreements. Problematic differences over territorial claims have been effectively set aside and as a disarmament regime it has been outstandingly successful. The Treaty parties remain firmly committed to a system that is still effective in protecting their essential Antarctic interests. Science is proceeding unhindered.
Since the first Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) in 1961, the parties have met frequently, now annually, to discuss issues as diverse as scientific cooperation, measures to protect the environment, and operational issues - and they are committed to taking decisions by consensus. This process has allowed the Antarctic Treaty to evolve into a system with a number of components that meet the special needs of managing activities in the Antarctic, while protecting national interests. This regime is now known by the broader title of the Antarctic Treaty System, which operates under the umbrella of the annual ATCM.
The Antarctic Treaty System
The Antarctic Treaty System comprises the Treaty itself and a number of related agreements. It also includes a range of organizations that contribute to the work of the decision-making forums.
In addition to the related agreements (described below), the Treaty System includes the recommendations, measures, decisions and resolutions of the Consultative Meetings relating to matters such as:
scientific cooperation;
protection of the Antarctic environment;
conservation of plants and animals;
preservation of historic sites;
designation and management of protected areas;
management of tourism;
information exchange;
collection of meteorological data;
hydrographic charting;
logistic cooperation; and
communications and safety.
The Treaty Parties have put in place rules relating to specific issues. The development of these agreements has allowed the implementation, with greater precision, of legally binding provisions for the regulation of activities in Antarctica.